BARTER IN THE CONTEXT OF CASHLESS SOCIETIES

The use of money as a medium of exchange is something that we take for granted. In fact, the final introduction of monetary system is a byproduct of accumulated experiences gained in societies where a market economy either in cash or kind prevailed. It was in the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia where civilization began that domesticated animals such as cows, goats, oxen etc. were used as a medium of exchange (Clain, 1985, P. 28). Particularly, Alvarez in his book dealing with his narrative journey to Abyssinia in the year 1520 mentions his observation of barter at Debarwa, a legendary town of Bahri Negasi which means the king of the sea (Alvarez, 1881, P. 62). Similarly, the term ‘pecuniary’ for money is coined from Latin ‘pecus’ or single head of cattle and so is ‘salary’ which is a corruption of ‘sal’ i.e. salt (Hoyt, 1973, p. 9-10). For the Romans as well as Abyssinians and Chinese were using salt as main currency from time immemorial (Clain, p. 16).

However, barter as a primitive from of exchange became absolute due to inconvenience and unfavorable dealing involved in business transaction. Finally, men through practical as well as logical reasoning seemed to adopt currency as the following epigram denotes:

Money is a function of four
A medium, a measure
A standard, a store.

In other words, to the economists that a proper currency must be easily transportable, homogenous, indestructible, divisible and stable in worth (Clain, P. 15). Hence it is not hard to imagine the problem involved in transporting, keeping or fixing a value of domestic animals mentioned earlier. It is against this background the monetary system evolved.

THE ADOPTION OF MINTED COINS

It was in the Asia Minor that the first coins minted and then after diffused in other parts of Europe at a time when the Hellenistic Empire under Alexander the Great expanded as far as Africa and Arabia. However, the first people to adopt such system were the inhabitants of Aegean mainland such as Athens and Corinth. By the fifth century coins were produced showing men and animals in action. However, most of the Greek coins were made up of silver while gold coins were minted in Persia where the Hellenistic rule held sway. Ptolemy who was one of Alexander the Great’s generals produced a new Tetradrachm following his accession to power in Egypt in the year 305 B.C. The coins bear his own image and eagle (Clain, P. 28-31). Some rulers of Africa dominions such as that of Axum continued to adopt the Greek coinage system. In the fourth century B.C. or two hundred years later after the Greeks, the Romans began to mint their own (Clain, P. 48-50). For the Hellenistic influence was strong in Rome. Particularly the dramatic messages and likeness of kings and animals engraved in the coins were used as symbols of power.

ADULIS DURING THE GRECO-ROMAN EMPIRE

By the fifth century B.C., a wave of South Arabian immigrants known as Habeshat, Sabaens and Agazians made their settlement at the port city of Adulis and its environs (Kidane, 1968, P. 7). Different sources trace as if Adulis was established by Egyptian slaves, South Arabian immigrants, local Cushitic people or Greek merchants. For the word “Adulis” is derived from Greek language which means serfs. However, the Yemeni ethnic groups who are historically known as Agazians (immigrants) are called Habeshat (mixed race) by neighboring Arabs due to their intermarriage with local Cushitic people. The same name maybe interpreted by other historians as gatherers of spices (Periplus 1912, P. 12). They are among those who migrated from the plateaux of the Arabian Peninsula or Yemen whose climate and topography resembling their present habitat. They introduced the advanced skills in agriculture, commerce, metal work, architectural designs and administration.

During the Greco-Roman Empire, Adulis was a chief trading post and harbor crowded with ships from Egypt, Arabia, Ceylon and India. Cosmos in his book “Christian Topography” recorded two inscriptions found at Adulis. Also an anonymous Egyptian monk in his traveling book “ The Periplus of Erythrean Sea” of the second or third century A.D., recorded a list of products such as ivory, tortoise shell, obsidian, spice and myrrh exported to the Orient (Periplus, p. 284). During the reign of Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.), Rome had already established a trade relationship with the people of Eastern Africa including the Greek and Egyptian merchants. However, the constant welfare imbued by colonial ambition, local revolts and the growing influence of Islam resulted in the final demise of Adulis in about 710 A.D. (Rothberg, 1965, p. 33).

Till the outbreak of World War II, most of the archeological studies conducted at the ruined port of Adulis were as a result of accidental discovery of deliberate research of scholars, missionaries, travelers and colonial authorities. However, some works by leading Abyssinologists such as Rupel (1845), Prideaux (1864), Dillman (1878), and Rosini (1907) began to appear in the reviews of learned societies. Their works mainly dealing with the chronicle of Axumite kings conductive to the study of numismatique and hence prehistoric Abyssinia. In 1868 Lord Napier in his famous expedition to Abyssinia surveyed the ancient ruins of Adulis and thus was able to identify the architectural form of the church was purely Byzantine (Anfrey, 1963). However, according to Littmann, Dr. Sundstrom was the rediscoverer of Adulis in the year 1906 despite some restrictions imposed upon him by colonists. (Littmann, 1907, p. 172 and Aren, 1978, p. 358). During the same year, by the order of the Italian Government, Professor Paribeni in cooperation with Professor Gallina conducted a rigorous scientific excavation ever done at the field site. The successful excavation enabled him to expose the architectural designs and various artifacts including coins whose origins still puzzling the present-day numismatists.

Throughout the long years of Italian rule in Eritrea, no effort had been done to explore the historic landmark of Adulis by replication. However, only Conto Rosini during the course of his service in colonial administration and other Italian scholars had investigated some ancient towns and documented them in a short-lived journal “Rassegna di Studi Etiopici.” Kolmodin, 1910, p. 252-255). After World War II, the Ethiopian Government in cooperation with a French archaeologist, Frances Anfrey, conducted a research at the field site of which some of the findings appeared in Annales d’ Ethiopie.

COINS DISCOVERED AT ADULIS

Coins collected at Adulis and Axum have some distinct characters as shown a moon-god and a cross representing the worship of the pagan deity and the introduction of Christianity in the year 340 or 342 AD respectively (Krammer, 1926, p. 43). See plate “A”, No. 6). According to Dr. Sundstrom two gold coins and one silver coin were discovered in the room dug at Adulis. Similarly, Paribeni collected forty gold coins and about 400 bronze coins looking differently as compared with that of the Romans (Paribeni, 1908, p. 569). Some of the coins discovered by Paribeni showing the Greek inscriptions and Oriental deity such as a moon-god which is still visible at the top of Metera’s and Axum’s steles (See F43, F44, F47).

Finally, the author would like to include the Eritrean coins by virtue of their unidentified origin that moved him to write such paper with curiosity (F50). In short, no descriptions concerning their sources are indicated in the Old Spanish Encyclopedia. Hence, after referring to the ancient coins and their circulation at certain point of time in history, similar coins used in Hellenistic age have been identified. For example, compare any coin with a star-like flower in F50 with that of F48, No. 11. It is a silver drachm of Ionia mainland in 5th century B.C. Similarly, look over a coin with an animal in action in octopus wreathes in F51 and contrast it with F49, F85. It is a silver dedrachm of Euboea, Eretre in 500 B.C. ( Carson, 1962. p. 587-589). Thus we might infer these coins in question to be of a Greek origin to some degree. Even though identifying such coins might pose a problem as each city-state was free to mint its own coins in the past. As a result, there were 120,000 different coins in an ancient world of Greek (Clain, p. 11).

CONCLUSION

The history of barter culminating in the adoption of coinage as a currency system has been briefed. Furthermore, central to our subject matte in question, the origin of Adulis coins and the problems involved in identifying them have been specified. However, as might be assumed, identifying the sources of Adulis coins is not tedious as such. For they could be easily distinguished by comparing with a variety of coins collected in the Middle East and Mediterranean lands following the World War II. Presently, it is more facilitated by improved archeological technology owed to ever-continuing public and private involvement in the field. However, given the current situation in Eritrea, any engagement in such costly enterprise may be looked upon as a luxury rather than necessity. All in all, it is imperative to rebuild the historical landmarks such as Adulis, Dibarwa etc. as their architectural designs are still available in rare books located in the libraries of major European capitals.

NOTES:

Alvarez, F. (1881). Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia.

Anfrey, F. (1963). Cited in Axum by Kobischchanov, Y.M. (1979) and translated by Lorraine Kapitanoff.

Aren, G. (1978). Evangelical Pioneers in Ethiopia.

Carson, R.A.G. (1962). Coins of the World.

Clain-Stefanelli, E. (1985). The Beauty and Lore of Coins.

Dillmann, A. (1978). Uber die Anfage der Axumitischen Reiches.

Hoyt, E.P. (1977). Coins Collectors and Counterfeiters.

Kammerer, A. (1926). Les monnaies Abyssines de la collection Muncharjee d’ Aden. Revue Numismatique.

Kidane, K. (1968). The Axumite Coins and the Kings Who Produced them (Amharic Text).

Kolmodin, J. (1910). Meine Studienreise in Abessinen. 1908-1910. Monde Oriental V. 4.

Littmann, E. (Februar, 1907). Preliminary Report of the Princeton University Expedition to Abyssinia. Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und Verwandte Gebate XX, Band 1.

Paribeni, R. (1908) Ricerche nel logo dell’ antica Adulis.

Periplus of the Erithraen Sea (1912). Author unknown. Translated by Wilfred H. Schoff.

Prideaux, W.F. (1884). The Coins of Axumite Dynasty. Numismatique Chronicle.

Rossini, I.R. (1909). Les listes des rois d’Aksoum. Journal Asiatique. V. 14.

Rothberg, I.R. (1965). A Political History of Tropical Africa.

Ruppel, E. (1845). An Unedited Coin Of One Of The Early Kings Of Abyssinia. Numismatique Chronicle, Ser., V. VIII.

Saint-Martin, M.V. ( En Aout, 1863). Eclaircissements geographiques et historiques sur l’inscription d’Adulis. Journal Asiatique.

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